Latimer, J., & Birke, L. (2009). Natural relations: horses, knowledge, technology.

Sociological Review, 57(1), 1 – 27.

Maintaining the tensions and divisions between the human and non-human, nature and culture has been a mainstay of Euro-American thought. Drawing upon two studies of people's associations with horses, we examine how these divisions are being reworked in the social sciences as well in everyday life. We focus on how different ideas about 'horses', 'horsemanship' and how knowledge is acquired, accomplishes different social worlds. Specifically, what emerges in these differential discourses is that a paradox is put into play to make a distinction between traditional and contemporary ways of being in relation to nature and the animal; it is the paradox of what we want to refer to as 'natural technologies'. We suggest that the paradox of 'natural technologies' is a proliferating feature of Euro-American cultural life that troubles old divisions between nature and culture and propose that it indicates less about a politics of nature than a politics of culture. Specifically, we show that the preoccupation with bringing nature, and the non-human, more into alignment with the human promotes ethics and equality as matters of lifestyle choice to the exclusion of very specific ideas about tradition, hierarchy, evolution and socialization.
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Yorke, J., Adams, C. et al. (2008). Therapeutic value of equine - Human bonding in recovery from trauma. Anthrozoos 21(1): 17-30.
Although most human-animal bond research has focused on relationships between humans and pets, animals have been used for therapeutic purposes in a variety of settings. Therapeutic riding programs have demonstrated a positive impact on quality of life for people with disabilities. Equine-facilitated psychotherapy is a promising approach to address selfesteem, depression, and other emotional or psychological problems. Restoration of the trauma victim's capacity for recovery hinges on provision of safety and development of trust, self-esteem, and self-efficacy. Thus, recovery from trauma represents an ideal context for exploring the therapeutic impact of equine-human relationships. The six participants in this study recognized that their pre-existing relationships with horses were therapeutic during recovering from trauma, defined as sufficient to have caused significant change in the participant's life. Semi-structured interviews and video-tapes of horse-rider interaction were used to describe the nature of the equine-human bond and its contribution to recovery from trauma. The equine-human bonds described by participants have parallels both with important elements of therapeutic alliances between professionals and clients and with the positive impact of relationship factors on client outcome.

Schultz, P. N., Remick-Barlow, G. A., et al. (2007). Equine-assisted psychotherapy: a mental health promotion/intervention modality for children who have experienced intra-family violence. Health & Social Care in the Community 15(3): 265-271.
Equine-assisted psychotherapy (EAP) is a specialized form of psychotherapy using the horse as a therapeutic tool. This modality is designed to address self-esteem and personal confidence, communication and interpersonal effectiveness, trust, boundaries and limit-setting, and group cohesion. Substantial numbers of children witness family violence. There is evidence that violence between parents has adverse effects on the children in the family. These children are at greater risk of behavioural problems and mental health disorders, including anxiety, anger, depression and suicidal ideations, withdrawal, low self-esteem, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. The purpose of the present pilot study was to test the efficacy of EAP in a cross-sectional group of children referred to a psychotherapist for various childhood behavioural and mental health issues over an 18-month period (June 2003-January 2005). Sixty-three children received a mean number of 19 EAP sessions. Scores on the Children's Global Assessment of Functioning (GAF) Scale were determined pre- and posttreatment. The mean (+/- standard deviation, SD) pretreatment score was 54.1 (SD 3.2) and post treatment mean score was 61.7 +/- 5.0 (t = 9.06, d.f. = 96, P < 0.001). All children showed improvement in GAF scores, and there was a statistically significant correlation between the percentage improvement in the GAF scores and the number of sessions given (r = 0.73, P = 0.001). Univariate analysis showed that the greatest improvement in the GAF scores occurred in the youngest of the subjects. Children in the group who had a history of physical abuse and neglect had a statistically significant greater percentage improvement in GAF scores after treatment than those who did not have a history of abuse and neglect. This study has demonstrated a quick response to EAP, especially in younger children, but it remains to be determined what kind of long-term effects this type of intervention may provide.

Krueger, K. (2007). Behaviour of horses in the "round pen technique. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 104(1-2): 162-170.
I investigated the behavioural background of the way horses learn to follow humans in the "round pen technique" suggested by "horse whisperers" as a gentle method for initial horse training. Though the practicability of this technique has been adequately demonstrated in the past, the horses' behaviour during such training has not yet been documented in detail. In a riding arena, horses, that did not follow the trainer immediately, were chased away so that they galloped around the trainer. Galloping horses showed specific behaviour such as turning the ear to the trainer, chewing, licking, and stretching head and throat downwards. In subsequent trials horses needed to be chased for less time and finally followed immediately, even when conditions were changed or the trainer was replaced by another person. This suggests that horses learn to follow in this particular situation and also show some generalisation. However, following did not occur on a pasture even after several successful trials in the riding arena. (C) 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Klontz, B. T., A. Bivens, et al. (2007). The effectiveness of equine-assisted experiential therapy: Results of an open clinical trial. Society & Animals, 15(3), 257-267.
This article describes an equine-assisted experiential therapy approach and presents treatment outcomes in 31 participants in an equine-assisted, experiential therapy program. Participants completed psychological measures prior to treatment, immediately following treatment, and 6 months after treatment. Reported reductions in psychological distress and enhancements in psychological well being were significant immediately following treatment and were stable at 6-month follow-up. The article discusses the clinical implications and limitations of the present study and directions for further research.

Henry, S., S. Briefer, et al. (2007). Are 6-month-old foals sensitive to dam's influence? Developmental Psychobiology, 49(5), 514-521.

A recent study has shown that gently handling dams in front of their days old foals may strongly influence the development of human-foal relationships. In the present study, we test whether 6-month-old foals remain sensitive to their dams' influence. The study was performed on 16 foal-mare dyads, with half of the mares receiving positive contacts from the experimenter in presence of their 6-month-old foals (n = 8) whereas the other mares were not handled (n = 8). All foals were tested 15 and 30-35 days later under various conditions (reaction to a motionless human, approach test, saddle-pad tolerance test). We observe a positive effect of mare' handling on foals' reactions to humans but with a high interindividual variability, suggesting a higher effect of the foals' own behavioral characteristics at this age than at earlier stages.

Gorecka, A., M. Bakuniak, et al. (2007). A note on the habituation to novelty in horses: handler effect. Animal Science Papers and Reports, 25(3), 143-152.

The intensity with which the horse reacts to novelty is crucial for safety of both horse and human. The aim of the study was to examine: (1) whether horses' fear reactions to a startling novel object diminish with successive test days and (2) whether the active human handling leads to the decrease of the fear-related responses of the horse. Eight adult horses were submitted daily to 5-minutes exposition to a novel object (NO) - open umbrella - for 5 consecutive days when released (Trial 1) and for 5 consecutive days when held by the handler (Trial 2), with 2-days break between Trials. Startle reaction score (SR), latency to touch the novel object (LNO), mean heart rate (HR) during 6 minutes of the tests, the percentage of time the horse spent standing, on locomotor activity (walk, trot, gallop) or on vigilance (vigilant standing, sustained walk) were analysed. The SR and LNO during Trial I did not change in consecutive test days. The NO provoked higher HR (P < 0.05) and intense vigilant standing at the beginning of the study (P < 0.01). Per cent of time of sustained walking, standing, trotting and galloping did not differ between days during Trial 1. The SR during Trial 2 differed neither within nor between Trials. The horses approached NO when handled as compared to almost no approach when not held by the handler (P < 0.05). With each day of the Trial 2 the horses approached quicker the umbrella (P < 0.05).

Taylor, S. E. (2006). Tend and befriend: Biobehavioral bases of affiliation under stress. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15(6), 273-277.

In addition to fight-or-flight, humans demonstrate tending and befriending responses to stress-responses underpinned by the hormone oxytocin, by opioids, and by dopaminergic pathways. A working model of affiliation under stress suggests that oxytocin may be a biomarker of social distress that accompanies gaps or problems with social relationships and that may provide an impetus for affiliation. Oxytocin is implicated in the seeking of affiliative contact in response to stress, and, in conjunction with opioids, it also modulates stress responses. Specifically, in conjunction with positive affiliative contacts, oxytocin attenuates psychological and biological stress responses, but in conjunction with hostile and unsupportive contacts, oxytocin may exacerbate psychological and biological stress responses. Although significant paradoxes remain to be resolved, a mechanism that may underlie oxytocin's relation to the health benefits of social support may be in view.

Kaiser, L., Smith, K. A. et al. (2006). Effects of a therapeutic riding program on at-risk and special education children. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 228(1), 46-52.

Kaiser, L.,  Heleski, C. R.et al. (2006). Stress-related behaviors among horses used in a therapeutic riding program. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 228(1), 39-45.