Philosophy and Theories
Academic research is usually based on a philosophy which leads to theories.
Theories lead to methodologies and methods of data gathering and analysis.
Philosophy
Ontology is what can be known.
Epistemology refers to the relationship bewteen the knower and what can be known.
Psychology as a science is rooted in positivism
Role of Cartesian dualism and objective, value free, science
• hallucination of separateness
• sense of entitlement
– mastery and domination themes
• moral terrain of speciesim dominance (Franklin, Tranter, & White, 2001)
• nature is raw material to be used
– androcentric language (English) transforms nature and living creatures into inert material
• historic period of objectification
– dichotomy
• culture above Nature
• man above woman
Disconnected materialists
• urban-industrial culture
– live in sterile climate controlled isolation
– capitalistic … creates psychosocial dissonance (Brown 1995, p. xiii)
– television and modern conveniences psychologically numb and disconnect humans from nature (Mander 1991, p. 95)
• pathologies and psychopathologies
– physical ill health
– psyche as separate
Postmaterialist paradigmic shift
• Rio Earth Summit (1992)
• attitudinal change
– from domination to connectionism
– from power and control to partnership
– from mechanistic to ecological world view
– competition to cooperation
– expansion to conservation
– quantity to quality
– economic growth to ecological sustainability
Post materialist thinkers
• Gaia hypothesis
– James Lovelock (1984)
– Gaia: A new look at life on Earth (1979) Planet Management
• Living Systems Theory
– Fritjof Capra
– Mindwalk (1992)
– The Turning Point
– The Tao of Physics
– The Web of Life
• Ecopsychology
– Theodore Roszak
– Restoring the Earth, Healing the Mind
– Core of psyche draws us to environmental harmony
Richard Louv author of 'Last Child in the Woods: Saving Our Children from Nature Deficit Disorder’
children are so immersed into television and video games - they've lost their connection to the natural world.
Theories
This research is based on many theories. Concepts such as speciesism, dominion versus eco-connection paradigms, and animals as substitute family members or friends within attachment and relational health theories are considered below with an emphasis on feminist research.
Speciesism
derives from the human belief that animals are given for human exploitation as a resource. Most of our history with horses has been a utilitarian relationship, based on our need. Similarly, Descartes proposed that culture and nature were separate. This philosophy has led generations of (white) men to believe that they were masters of nature and separate from, or above, it. Women’s studies and research into the value of human-nonhuman animal relationships are newcomers to the academy. Each challenges a form of oppression and were both nurtured in the 1970s with an increasing awareness of the connections between women and nature. Deep ecologists consider anthropocentrism a problem when discussing nature but the problem is one of androcentrism whereby the exploitation and oppression of women and nature is condoned by existing patriarchal social structures.
Dominion
The schema that dominates the concept of subject persists, the Derridean view of the hierarchy of subjects and values, that is, men above women and finally animals. With regard to language, identity, species and understanding the other, Wittgenstein is reported to have said that “If a lion could talk we could not understand him” but I disagree as some animals do communicate to some people who do understand them. There are in the horse world, men and women who are considered to be able to communicate with horses, they are the ‘horse whisperers’. Recently this phenomenon has been exposed in the media with Monty Robert's 1997 autobiography “The man who listen to horses” and Robert Redford's (1998) film “The horse whisperer”. This certainly re-orientates the alterity of the non-human other, rather than the subjectivity of species as different they can be equated with singularity.
However, power differentials in the domination theme continued in psychology, and to protect a notion of difference and distance between man and woman, nature and culture, animals, including horses have been reduced to archetypes, disguised impulses or to mere symbols in language or imagery as a form of psychological disenfranchisement.
In this research project I hope to counter this philosophy and return culture to nature. The term culture should be defined. The biological meaning is to enhance and facilitate the growth of a group of organisms, whereas the social sciences limit the meaning to groups of humans. It can be posited that the reunification of the word culture is evident in describing groups of humans who share their lives with animals, such as, ‘horsiculture’, where humans form communities with specific discourses and practices.
I posit that humans who identify as part of modern western civilisation have lost respect for all life forms and that culture has alienated itself from nature, causing environmental crises with materialistic and technological fervour. A theoretical framework of reconnection, that is, forming relationships with horses may derive from a synergistic convergence of the eco-centered thinking of both ecopsychology and ecofeminism. This reconnection view is upheld by others who propose a similar progression in the evaluative health benefits of direct human-animal interactions between children and nature. The nine stages of values typology are utilitarian, dominionistic, negativitistic, symbolic, aesthetic, scientific, naturalistic and finally moralistic. These developmental stages are based in the cognitive domain of psychological theory and reflect the historical changes in our attitudes to animals.
The Biophilia Concept
is the “innately emotional affiliation of human beings to other living organisms”. From this hypothesis an emotional affiliation to horses would be possible. Like attachment theory it is not a single instinct but a complex of learning rules.
Attachment Theory
derived from ethology (study of animal behaviour) is a biologically determined motivational system that derives a need for security. This security is found in the proximity of another, the attachment figure. Bowlby states that this pattern of attachment tends to persist over time and influences later interactions with others and the development of new relationships. Horses can provide a safe, non-judgmental attachment figure, although arguably not at the earliest developmental stages.
Adult attachment is a mental construct that helps to maintain an inner state of well-being. Attachment can be described as an engagement contingent responsivity and expands non-verbal dialogue of moment to moment, affective mirroring. Such bonds of attachment may occur in a relationship with an animal. Horses have been described as the “mirror in the stable” matching the intense emotions of the human in front of them. The continued proximity of daily interactions with horses may be significant in strengthening the attachment bond which can facilitate personal growth.
Social Support theories
The three concentric rings of the social convoy which link concepts of attachment with social support can be considered here as women centre their lives around key relationships “even define themselves through connection”, this connection could well be with horses.
Relational Health Theory
Similarly, the relational model theorists identify positive qualities of relationships for women. These include authenticity, the feeling of being free to be genuine in the context of the relationship, mutual engagement, perceived as a commitment, and attunement to the relationship, also, empowerment or the experience of feeling personally strengthened, encouraged, and inspired to take action including the desire to seek further connection. The psychological health of the individual depends on the presence of these three qualities in a relationship, thus the relational health model can be employed to conceptualize innovations in areas such as relationships from outside the family, or non-kin, even a horse. I am aware of the critics of the relational health model that believe it reinforces the oppression of women by stressing the nurturing qualities. I contend that the personal needs of women are fulfilled by the empowerment that derives from such growth fostering relationships.
Interactional Personality Theory
Relational theories are similar to the interactional personality theories where horses can play a role as substitutes for human individuals. Within the family constellation, understanding the role of an animal within a family can reveal much about the dynamics and relationships that exist in that family.
Connectionism
These ideas counter most traditional psychological theories where the ultimate developmental goal of a healthy autonomous and independent person is separation individuation. However, they share connectedness with the relational theory of healing which conceptualises an ongoing, growth-fostering connection as critical to development. Thus the emerging theoretical framework of the relational health model will provide a foundation for this research project.
Reconnection with Ecotherapy
synergistic relation between planetary and personal well being; that the needs of the one are relevant to the other (Strubbe, 1997)
• two aspects of ecopsychology
– personal healing and
– planetary healing
• seen as
– interconnected and
– mutually causal (van Tine, 1999)
‘Today, a new paradigm and new era of myth are beginning to unfold ... reflecting a new stage of human consciousness as it wrestles with an evolving global community, the unfolding environmental crisis … a mutualism and interconnectedness’ (Gregory Cajete, 2001).
Pet therapy
• Prescribe Pets, not Prozac: Review of companion Animals in Human Health, Wilson and Turner (1998)
• predominant metaphors that emerge in pet owners' relationships with their animals are pets as pleasures, problems, parts of self, members of the family, and toys (Belk, 1996)
Animals provide
companionship, caring, comfort, calmness, unconditional love, acceptance, mutual engagement, commitment, attunement, accurate empathetic understanding, free to be yourself, support, accept self, allow authenticity, feeling of being free to be genuine in the context of the relationship, chance to forget about other problems, a focus outside self, appreciate Nature, help escape, get out of myself, reason to live, for security, protection, to nurture, altruistic and nurturant, feel personally strengthened, for inspiration and learning, feel powerful, empowerment, encouraged, inspired to take action, to have fun,to be childlike and playful, allow you to make new friends, strengthen bonds with other humans, inspired to seek new friends, positive effect on your health (Cusack,1988; Holbrook et al., 2001; Johnson, 2001)
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